Let's make it concrete.

SR So what do you think, Xu?

disabling, reversing cell cycle inhibitors.

Memory cells generated by the HlV vaccine are activated when they learn

You can think of channelrhodopsin as a sort of light sensitive switch that can be artificially installed in brain cells so that now we can use that switch to activate or inactivate the brain cell simply by clicking it, and in this case we click it on with pulses of light.

So if this was happening, your memories could start by place cells activating each other via these dense interconnections and then reactivating boundary cells to create the spatial structure of the scene around your viewpoint.

And you can do that you can tweak the viruses so they hit just some cells and not others.

Where are the kids?

We took the eggs of a related species, a living frog, and we inactivated the nucleus of the egg.

Another way by which bugs can affect the brain is by activating the gut endocrine system.

And then when you shine light on the entire network, just that cell type will be activated.

And place cells in their hippocampi would fire, become active, start sending electrical impulses whenever they drove through a particular location in that town.

Now both of these kinds of cells can make the place cells fire.

This bath stimulates white blood cells and speed up the process.

Rapid cell deterioration.

So, we took the red cells you see the red cells are surrounded by blue, other cells that squeeze them, and behind it is material that people thought was mainly inert, and it was just having a structure to keep the shape, and so we first photographed it with the electron microscope years and years ago, and you see this cell is actually quite pretty.

And these are some of the cells that might be overactive in disorders such as epilepsy.

Well basically that means that this protein is changing from the sensitive cell to the resistant cell.

This is because, although each cell in our bodies contains the same set of genes, different mixes of genes get turned on and off in different cells.

And what MyoD essentially does is, it causes cells to differentiate into muscle cells.

Optically activating these hundred or so cells into two strains of flies has dramatically different consequences.

So certain genes are expressed in certain parts of the body, but every one of your body cells, and we call those somatic cells, and we'll separate those from the sex sells or the germs that we'll talk about later.

Let me just explain very briefly what happens in an area of the brain which is especially active

I'm reading massive cellular deterioration.

Embryonic stem cells have occupied center stage, chiefly because of their pluripotency that is their ease in differentiating into a variety of different cell types.

And the cells that have a haploid number of chromosomes are our gametes, which are sperm cells for men, and ova, or egg cells for women.

I don't think so!

You probably know, if you've been paying attention to some of the science literature that you can now take a skin cell and encourage it to become a liver cell or a heart cell or a kidney cell or a brain cell for any of us.

And as it moves around, the electrical activity can pass from one of these cells to the next cell to keep track of where it is, so that it can use its own movements to know where it is in its environment.

I'll nicely demonstrate that for you. (Laughter)

They control how the cells grow and differentiate.

And if you record from several grid cells shown here in different colors each one has a grid like firing pattern across the environment, and each cell's grid like firing pattern is shifted slightly relative to the other cells.

Another way by which microbes can affect the brain is by activation of the immune system.

SR So it just so happens that light travels at the speed of light.

Then a repressor protein that blocks the operating cells.

It can actually make itself glow.

We're actually injecting contrast into the organ.

Interestingly, when you were first conceived, and you were just comprised of a few, undifferentiated embryonic stem cells, which had the potential to become any cell in your body, your chromatin didn't have many Epigenetic marks on it.

So in a male, you have some germ cells, so some of these cells turn into germ cells.

So in this cartoon, the bluish white cell in the upper left corner does not respond to light because it lacks the light activated pore.

Each one plays a particular role a heart cell, a muscle cell, a brain cell.

So to do that, we came up with a very simple paradigm in collaboration with the Fiorella group, where one side of this little box, if the animal goes there, the animal gets a pulse of light in order to make different cells in the brain sensitive to light.

In the case of a male, these would be sperm cells.

The observation that stem cells, as master cells, could give rise to a whole variety of different cell types heart cells, liver cells, pancreatic islet cells captured the attention of the media and the imagination of the public.

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